Connotations Of Animal Words In English And Chinese Languages Essay

Connotations Of Animal Words In English And Chinese Languages Essay Abstract This paper aims to study the characteristics of different types of animal words in English and Chinese. Because of the close relation between human beings and animals, animal words have been given rich connotations. However, due to the differences of customs, living environments and cultural backgrounds of various nationalities, each nationality has its own understanding about animal words. According to their features, this paper divides animal words into three categories ¼Ã…’one is same animal words, similar connotations, one is same animal words, different connotations, another is different animal words, similar connotations. Whats more, it is to further analyze the translation strategy for each group of animal words and find out a rule for the translation of animal words. Key Words intercultural communication; animal words; difference; connotation; translation strategy 1. Introduction Animal words take over a large amount in English and Chinese. As the result, it is significant to master different meanings of animal words in intercultural communication. 1.1 Research Background With the rapid development of the global world, people have more and more chances to communicate with foreigners. Intercultural communication has become more and more important. It is a common phenomenon in our daily life, which can occur anytime and anywhere just between two people from different countries. Due to the differences of cultures and social backgrounds between the countries, people have diverse understandings toward a same word. A successful intercultural communication demands exact meaning and accurate expression. The animal is closely related to the human beings. In the daily life, people will use large numbers of animal words to express the feelings or describe some situations. Animal words contain large cultural information. As two of the most widely used languages, both Chinese and English are full of animal words which have accumulated abundant connotations as the time passed by. To know the right connotation of an animal word between English and Chinese, we can avoid making mistakes in the process of translation, and avoid misunderstandings in intercultural communication as well. 1.2 Purpose of the Research As Là ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Aà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Samovar said ¼Ã… ¡It is more accurate to say people possess meaning and that words elicit these meanings. We can have different meanings for the same word. All people ¼Ã…’drawing on their backgrounds, decide what a word means(Là ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Aà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Samovar ¼Ã…’1995 ¼Ã… ¡152). So based on different cultural background, animal words have different connotations. While in intercultural communication, its necessary to understand the connotations of animal words. Meanwhile, the translation is one of the most important activities on intercultural communication. Therefore, in this thesis, the writer wants to study the difference connotations of animal words in English and Chinese and to find out a translation rule for different kinds of animal words. 1.3 Structure of the Paper The thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter includes the research background, purpose of the study and the organization of this thesis. In the second chapter, literature review aims at presenting the previous investigations of animal word, which includes the achievements and limitations of past studies of animal words. Then the third chapter discusses the similarities and differences of animal words in English and Chinese. In this chapter, the writer divides animal words into three different categories. The fourth chapter finds out the suitable translation strategies for each kind of animal words. The last chapter draws a conclusion and points out the limitations of the research ¼Ã… ½ 2. Literature Review The history of intercultural communication maybe is as long as the history of human life. The bargains of merchants along the silk road during the Tang Dynasty in China and the immigration of thousands upon thousands of gold-diggers to north America are the instances of intercultural communication(à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¨Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2011 ¼Ã… ¡5). But actually, the systemic study of intercultural communication just started in the United States in the 1950s. Intercultural communication is related to linguistics ¼Ã…’psychology ¼Ã…’praxiology ¼Ã…’sociology, philosophy and so on. In addition, intercultural communication plays a major role in tourists, overseas studies, business and immigrants. The scholars at home have been done many investigations of animal words in English and Chinese from various dimensions. Such as Liao Guangrong (à ¥Ã‚ »-à ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬Å"†°Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2000) pays more attention to the cultural connotation of the animal word itself. Liu Yingjie(à ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‹Å"à ¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ±Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ °Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2006) focuses on the linguistics to analyze animal words. The thesis A Comparative Cognitive Analysis of Metaphors in English and Chinese Animal Terms (Di Feng, 2006) studies the animal terms from the stand point of metaphors. He focused on proving the effect of metaphorical competence development to the language enhancement and cultural studying through the study of contemporary metaphor theories and the relationship between the animal terms and cultural. Zhou Datian(2007) analyzes the reasons that cause the different images of animal words in English and Chinese. He points out that these differences are influenced by four features. They are the cul ture, literary quotations about animal words, peoples customs and the mode of production, the sports and entertainment. Meanwhile, he thinks that animal words represent the national characteristic. If we understand and use animal words correctly, we can study and comprehend these two languages better. By reviewing the previous researches in animal words, the author finds that animal words studies on the perspective of the intercultural communication are limited ¼Ã… ½Even there is no paper systematically analyzing the major translations methods of different kinds of animal words that base on intercultural communication. 3. The Similar and Different Connotations of Animal Words in English and Chinese If people dont understand the cultural background of the sentences, it is hard to know the true meaning the speaker wants to express while in intercultural communication. For example, here is a dialogue about the connotation of an animal word. A asks B whether he is ready for the math exam tomorrow. Then B answers that he has got his rabbits foot right here. In this dialogue, the rabbits foot shares the same meaning of good luck and success. If we dont know this background, we would not continue the talking. So it is worthy of studying the similarities and differences of the connotation of animal words so as to avoid the embarrassment in intercultural communication. 3.1 Same Animal Words, Similar Connotations Most animal words contain abundant connotations. However, because of animals nature and traits, they often share the same meaning. The connotation of bull in English and Chinese are similar in accordance with the bad temper of bull. To refer to a person who is stubborn, Chinese and English share some similar expressions. In English, people say Sometimes you can be so bull-headed! While in Chinese, people usually say à §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ °Ã¢â‚¬ . And the image of the bee which is busy gathering honey is well-known by people, so we use the bee to praise the industrious and hardworking person both in English and Chinese, e.g. He is as busy as a bee. In addition, living in the similar environment, though people from different culture background, they would share similar understanding about a same animal. Take fox as an example, when the fox refers to a person, it means that the man is cunning or sly. According to Oxford Dictionary, pig is Domestic or wild animal with short legs, cloven hooves and a broad blunt snout (Oxford, 1108). That is the denotation of pig. Actually the imaginary and metaphorical expressions of pig in English and Chinese are alike as well. They both connotes the images of fat, foolish and greedy. In Chinese, à ¨Ã†â€™-à ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¥Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ãƒ §Ã…’ ªÃ‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ãƒ §Ã…’ ªÃƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚ ¼Ã…’à §Ã…’ ªÃƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¨Ã‚  Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ §Ã…’ ªare gross words to scold people. In English, there are saying like as fat as a pig , He makes a pig of himself (à ¤Ã‚ »-à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã… ¾Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã… ½Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã‚ ½) or He has been a pig about money(à ¤Ã‚ »-à ¥Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã‚ ±Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¦-  Ãƒ ¥Ã… ½Ã…’). There are others sharing similar connotation, for instance, lock the stable door after the horse has been stolen (à ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã… ½Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ®); fish in troubled waters (à ¦Ã‚ µÃ¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ ¦Ã‚ °Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚ ¸Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¼); Its a good horse that never stumbles(à ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ±Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬Å¾) . In short, when in intercultural communication, the similarity of connotative meanings of animal words in English and Chinese can help people make less misunderstanding as possible. 3.2 Same Animal Words, Different Connotations In most cases, the animal word stands for different images in different cultures. Here the author wants to introduce some typical animal words which are remarkably different in different cultures.. 3.2.1 Fish(à ©Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¼) Britain is an island country. The fishery and seafaring are fully developed and they mean a lot to Britain. Thus, many sayings are created according to the sea. For example, British will use a fine kettle of fish to express the things are in the mess or farfetched. Fish in the air is equal to the Chinese phrase à ¦Ã‚ °Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã… ¾Ãƒ ¦Ã…“ˆ. To have other fish to fry means people have other things to deal with. About the fish in English ,it is also a derogatory word reflected to the bad person, like a poor fish(à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“à ¨Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã‚ «); a loose fish(à §Ã¢â‚¬ Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ´Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ º); a cold fish (à ¥Ã¢â‚¬  Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ¼Ã‚  Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ º). It is very difficult to know the exact meaning without a well understanding about the English culture. So does the Chinese. The fish has the same pronunciation as à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã¢â€ž ¢, so the fish is the symbol of abundance in Chinese. In Spring Festival, people would like to cook a fish as a dish to symbolize a good luck in the next year(the authors translation) (à §Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ¼Ã…’2003 ¼Ã… ¡17à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 18). It is a special tradition of China which is unique over the world. Many foreigners hear little of it. 3.2.2 Dog(à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-) Dog shares the same denotation in both English and Chinese. But Chinese and English-speaking countries have different attitudes toward dog. To talk about the connotation, these two languages are greatly diverse. In English-spoken countries, people do not just keep dogs for hunting or farming, but also treat them as fellows. The dog always shows a lovely and loyal image in English. By this reason, English people keep taking the dog as humans faithful friend. Here are some expressions of dog : a lucky dog(à ¥Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¿), a clever dog (à ¨Ã‚ Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¦Ã‹Å"Ã… ½Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ º), a top dog (à ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ©), every dog has its days ¼Ã… ½(à ¦Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ©Ã†â€™Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¦Ã…“†°Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦- ¶). Opposite to English, when to refer a person of dog, it usually means something bad in Chinese. For instance, the myth à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¥Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ´Ã… ¾Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¾Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã†â€™ means mistaking a good person as bad guy. Most Chinese phrases about à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-are associated with derogatory connotations. It is reflected on the sayings like à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ±Ã… ½, à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¦Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢, à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¤Ã‚ »-à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã…  Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ §Ã…  Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à §Ã…“ ¼Ãƒ §Ã…“†¹Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã… ½Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¥Ã‹Å" ´Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¨Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â€ž ¢. While Chinese say someone like a dog or à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¦Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ §Ã‚ , they are criticizing a person. No Chinese people would like to be called as a dog. T hus we must take special care while translating from English to Chinese. 3.2.3 Dragon(à ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢) Dragon is of commentary meaning in Chinese. According to the dictionary, dragon is a heroic animal of the ancient Chinese legend, the ancient symbol of the emperor (the authors translation) (à §Ã… ½Ã‚ °Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ »Ã‚ £Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ±Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¼Ã…’816). Dragon is an imaginary animal in China. In Chinese culture dragon occupies a prominent position as it symbolizes auspiciousness, wealth, future and power. We Chinese people call ourselves as descendants of dragon(à ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¼Ã‚  Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ º). Parents hope their children can be useful and have a bright future like a dragon or a phoenix when they grow up. Ancient people also believed that the dragon was the king of the sea ¼Ã…’was an immortal. Therefore the dragon is always associated with water and heavens. On the contrary, dragon is a derogatory term in English. Though à ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢ and dragon are both an imaginary animal in China and western countries, they have different appearances. According to the dictionary, the dragon is a mythical monster like a giant reptile. In European tradition the dragon is typically fire-breathing and tends to symbolize chaos or evil (The New Oxford Dictionary of English.2001). Dragon is also considered to be a fierce person, esp. a woman. So obviously, the translator cant translate the dragon word directly from Chinese to English. It will make English people think that it is a curse. 3.3 Different Animal Words, Similar Connotations By the commonness of social lives and customs in China and English-speaking countries, people may use different animal words to represent similar connotations, especially in the idioms. For instance, à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ³Ãƒ §Ã‚ ¾Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ¬ has the same meaning of the black sheep of the family(à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ©Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ §Ã‚ ¾Ã…  ); à §Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ±Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ±Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã…  Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã…’ can be regarded as love me love my dog; English people would like to say like a rat in the hole to describe a person who is sure to win or troubles are easily to save. But in Chinese ,we prefer to employ à §Ã¢â‚¬Å" ®Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ¦Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬Å"à ©Ã‚ ³-; To refer to hypocritical, in Chinese it would use à §Ã…’ «Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å" ­Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¼Ã‚  . In English it would use the crocodile tears(à ©Ã‚ ³Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ §Ã…“ ¼Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã‚ ª); Sell a pig in a poke has the same meaning as à ¦Ã…’‚à §Ã‚ ¾Ã…  Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ -à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-à ¨Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬ °. There is one more typical examination of this sort. HorseandOx Because of the difference of farming practices, horse and ox play the same role in China and Britain. They are the important instruments for farming, so horse and ox share some similarities in these two counties, even in other western counties. To refer to strong, in Chinese there are expressions like à ¥Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ £Ã‚ ®Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¥Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ º. In English, they are equal to as strong as a horse. Hardworking without complain, in Chinese, these person will be called à ¨Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ º(à §Ã‚ ½-à ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ °Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2010 ¼Ã… ¡2). While in English, they will be said as work like a horse or a willing horse. In other aspect, the man who tells lies would be called à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ §Ã… ¡Ã‚ ®. And he would be called talk horse in English. 4. The Translation of Animal Words in English and Chinese According to Columbia Encyclopedia, Translation is the art of recomposing a work in another language without losing its original flavor (Columbia, qtd. inà ¤Ã‚ »Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¦,2006:40). Our famous scholar Yan Fu defined the standards of the translation as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. Generally speaking, it is difficult for translators to translate a word individually without a sentence or a text. They should maintain the right meaning of the source language, and also follow the style of the original texts to keep the coherence of the source texts and the target texts. Translation is often compared to a bridge, which is not just between the source text and the target text but between the author of original text and the reader of the target text(à ¤Ã‚ »Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¦,2006:40 41). The close relation between language and culture determines the close ties of translation and culture. Translation is not just about individual words. The cultural backgrounds and knowledge also play a major role in translation and restrict it. Therefore ¼Ã…’translation is one of intercultural communication activities. The words translation constructs the foundation of intercultural communication(the authors translation) (à §Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ º,2003 ¼Ã… ¡21). 4.1 The Translation Strategy for animal words Sharing Similar Connotation Because the similar understanding of the same animal words in English and Chinese, the reader can easily get the right meaning of the words without the translators explanation. These animal words can be translated into other language directly. In other words, translators can use literal translation on animal words which share the same denotations or the similar connotation. Literal translation refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that the readers can comprehend the origins literal grace(à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ , 2011). Here are some examples of using literal translation. There is an English sayings like water off a ducks back to describe a phenomena that the water couldnt stay in the ducks back and all slide off without any trail. It is used to criticize a person whom the suggestions have no effect on. Likewise, there is a same idiom in Chinese which has the same connotation à ¦Ã‚ °Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ ¨Ã†â€™Ã…’. Thus, translators can use literal translation on this saying. Because the image of the rat is timid and disgusting both in English and Chinese, the phrases A lion at home ¼Ã…’a mouse a broad and A rat crossing the street is chased by a11 can be directly translated to à ¥Ã…“ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¶Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ®Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚ Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¥Ã…“ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤-à ¥Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¼Ã‚   and à ¨Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¼Ã‚  Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¡-à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ºÃƒ ¥-Ã…  Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬Å". There are others animal words have similar connotations like black horse(à ©Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ¬), as stupid as an ass(à §Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾-à ¥Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ´) and do not be a goose(à ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬Å"à ¥Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¦). The literal translation can not only express the same connotations of animal words, but also can remain the language style of the source text better. 4.2 The Translation Strategy for Animal Words Sharing Diverse Connotation It is a good choice to use the free translation to interpret animal words which have same denotations but different connotations in English and Chinese. Only to abandon the denotations can we guarantee that the cultural meaning would be accurately transferred. To take the typical example dragon. As we all know, dragon has a completely opposite images in Chinese and English. So, a Chinese phrase à ¦Ã…“†ºÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã‹â€ Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢ can not be translated literally into expect ones son to become a dragon. In order to avoid misunderstanding, the better translation is to expect ones son to become useful. Out of such consideration,à ¤Ã‚ ºÃ… ¡Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ²Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢ is properly interpreted as the four tigers of Asia ¼Ã… ½But in recent years, with the widespread of Chinese Dragon Culture, some scholars put forward that translator can translate à ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢ to Loong to reserve the Chinese cultural characteristic(à ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ·Ã ¢â‚¬ËœÃƒ ¤Ã‚ ¾Ã‚  Ã‚ ¼Ã…’2008 ¼Ã… ¡2). In English, it has an acclaim like you are a lucky dog. But because of the different images of dog in English and Chinese, it will be considered as a curse when is translated to à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã‚  Ãƒ ¦Ã‹Å" ¯Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¦Ã‹Å"Ã… ½Ãƒ §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹-. If the connotations of one animal word is dissimilar even inconsistent in two languages, the better translation strategy is only to keep the connotation, in other words, to use the free translation. Thus, the sentence you are a lucky dog should be translated into à ¤Ã‚ ½Ã‚  Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¾Ã‹â€ Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¦Ã‹Å"Ã… ½. 4.3 The Translation Strategy for Different Animal Words Sharing Similar Connotation On the basis of the analysis above, there exists a situation in which different animal words share the similar connotations in English and Chinese. This type of animal words can be substituted by each other. While translating, the translator just needs to find the matched animal words or some idioms to replace it. These are some translation instances from English to Chinese. As the analysis above, the connotations of the lion and tiger are similar. As the result, to place oneself in a lions mouth can be translated to à §Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ®Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ºÃ‚ «Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã… ½Ãƒ §Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ´. Meanwhile, we would better translate the English idiom kill the goose that laid the golden eggs to à ¦Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ -à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ µ rather than à ¦Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ -à ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ µ. Beside, it seems no mistake to translate the phrase better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion to à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ §Ã…  Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¦-,à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã…“à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ®Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ ¾. Bu t the Chinese may dont understand the connotation of this translation. In addition, a Chinese saying à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ ©Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ ¾ shares the similar meaning with this phrase. Alternatively, we could use à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ ©Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ ¾ to replace the translation of à ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ºÃƒ §Ã…  Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¦-,à ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã…“à §Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ®Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ ¾ in this phrase. The English to wake a sleeping wolf and the Chinese à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢â‚¬Å"à ¨Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¦Ã†â€™Ã…  Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ¢â‚¬ ¡ both express the inadvertently action making the others awareness and prevention. In this way, these two phrases can interconvert while translating. The purpose of translation is to maintain the cultural meanings of the source texts. It is not suitable to use literal translation or free translation to translate animal words which different ones stand for similar connotation. It is easily to confuse and mislead the readers. The author thinks that the best translation strategy for these animal words is to use the similar connotation words of the target language to substitute the original animal word in source text. It is better to maintain the connotation and the language characteristic of source text as well. 5. Conclusion Animal words contain lots of connotations which are relied on peoples living environment, religion and the animals appearances. Since the close relation between human being and animals, and the various connotations of animal words in English and Chinese, it is really necessary to know the exact meaning of animal words to guarantee intercultural communication go on smoothly. The translation is one important intercultural communication activity. After analyzing animal words connotations, the writer finds that animal words can be divided into three categories according to their own connotation feature. Each group of animal words is suitable for one translation strategy. Translation in English and Chinese, translators can use the literal translation for the same animal words referring to similar meaning, and use the free translation for same animal words referring to different meaning. In addition, translators can use the same meaning animal words to replace when different words share si milar meaning. But this mode is not stationary, the translators must be flexible, they should find the right connotation in the source text based on the writers intention. A successful translation is to express the deep meaning of the source texts through analyzing the whole texts, instead of studying on the surface. By the limited scope of knowledge of the author and insufficient time, this paper just talks about a minimal part of the study of animal words and refers to only three major translation strategies. There are more animal words which cannot be listed and discussed here one by one. But the author hopes this thesis can be helpful for the further research of animal words.

A Dissertation Proposal Essay

Chapter One: The Problems and Its Components The problem to be investigated in this study is school climate, considering and comparing teacher perceptions of both the actual and ideal psychological environment in three different African American private schools. The literature indicates that an open climate with lines of communication that are established at all levels, staff freedom, professional interest, and participatory decision making, among other similar factors, will lead to positive teacher attitudes and improved teacher performance. The relationship between teachers’ perceptions of the actual and ideal psychological school environment has not yet been tested for African American private schools. See more: Examples of satire in adventures of huckfinn essay Problem Background As explained by Beachum and McCray (2004), school climate has a significant impact on the attitudes and performance of teachers in that it influences professional growth and development in academic and social terms, influences the ability to handle work pressures, and ultimately can lead to attrition if the climate is not open and does not have adequate lines of communication. The school’s value systems, work pressures, participatory decision making, resource adequacy, growth opportunity, and student support all play a part in the overall climate of the school (Cole-Henderson, 2000). The study of this climate is of critical importance to the well being, positive attitudes, and professional development of the school’s teachers. The current need to provide every child with qualified and committed teachers in the face of a national teacher shortage supports the importance of conducting research on factors influencing teacher attitudes and stressors in the teaching profession, particularly those that might affect burnout and turnover. It is also clear that a healthy school climate–a school with a strong academic emphasis and a principal who has influence with superiors and is willing to use it on behalf of teachers–is conducive to the development of teachers’ beliefs that they can influence student learning and make a difference. It is also clear that work pressures can exert additional stress on a teacher if the school climate is perceived in a negative light. Numerous studies (Harris, 1999; Jamal, 1999; Ma & Macmillan, 1999; MacDonald, 1999; Remy, 1999) have focused on teacher stress. According to Remy, research has shown that 40% of new teachers leave the profession within 5 years. These studies also have shown that approximately half of all teachers leave the profession within the first 7 years because of job-related stress. Because teaching is a stressful occupation (Ma & Macmillan; Remy; Weiss, 1999), teachers often self-select out of the profession. Schools must then scramble to replace these teachers. Remaining faculty and the school district become further strained in the attempt to make up for the shortage. Knowledge of how teachers perceive the current school climate and what teachers think the ideal environment should be would be of invaluable importance. Theoretical Orientation The literature review will focus on both the conceptual framework of the study and the major variables of concern. The conceptual framework will be based on attribution and motivation theory. The major variables of concern are the ideal and actual perceptions of the school climate by teachers. Initially, attribution theory was presented as a theoretical process in the late 1970s and middle 1980s (Frieze, 1976; Weiner, 1979, 1985, 1986). It provided the framework for examining the responses of teachers to such academic outcomes of students as failure or success in the general education classroom. Since that time a number of studies have been conducted that provide empirical support of its principles. According to Graham (1990; 1991), both ability and effort have been identified as the major perceived causes of individual teacher failure or success. In other words, failure can be overcome by effort, while success comes about as a result of personal competence. Teacher ability is comprised of aptitude and learned skills in an academic context. Effort, on the other hand, is the amount of exertion applied to a learning situation. Attribution can be applied in situations in which teachers try to understand their own behavior. It can also be applied when teachers try to assess the classroom performance of students in order to increase their teaching success (Graham, 1990, 1991). When teachers’ expectations are not met, the instructors may resort to any number of actions. They may often be tardy or absent. In fact, attrition is often the end result. The individuals may also withdraw from teaching psychologically–that is, not concentrate, do no more than absolutely necessary, and have no interest or initiative. As a result, the quality of teaching in general may suffer. Vroom (1964) stated that motivation is a product of the anticipated worth that individuals place on a goal and the chances they see of achieving that goal. According to Vroom, three factors influence achievement: force, valence, and expectancy. Force equals valence times expectancy. Force is the strength of the teachers’ motivation while valence is the anticipated satisfaction from the result. Expectancy is the probability of achieving the outcome. The impact of force depends on both valence and expectancy. For example, if teachers show indifference in achieving a goal, the valence becomes zero. Specifically in his expectancy theory, Vroom (1964) suggested the following: Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) x Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) x Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value).   From this formula it is clear that a high value for one variables of the formula will result in a high motivation value and vice versa. In Vroom’s (1964) view, the three variables must exist for motivation to take place. Thus, when teachers do not think they will be successful at a task or do not value the results of becoming successful in their school or do not perceive a connection between their attitude and the school climate, it is more than likely that they will not apply themselves to the teaching activity. Organizational theory also relates to the proposed investigative study in terms of communication. According to this theory, restrictive and closed climates with closed lines of communication relate to poor teacher performance (Cole-Henderson, 2000). The school system is an organization, and thus communication theory applies. When lines of communication are closed teachers do not communicate with administrators or students, and school management does not communicate with teachers other than giving orders from the top down. Communication only flows from the top down. In such a school system, the perceived motivational climate is negative and achievement goals suffer (Bennett, 2002). Clearly, when there are open lines of communication, there is more interest in teaching and thus knowledge has more meaning. This translates into improved achievement on the part of both the teacher and the student. It is clear to see that school climate has a decided bearing on teachers in a number of different ways. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to evaluate teacher perceptions of the climate of three independent Black private schools in relationship to the actual and ideal climate. Thus, the purpose is three-fold: 1. To determine if teacher perceptions of the actual school climate differs between and among the three African American private schools included in the study. 2. To determine if the teacher’s perceptions of the ideal or preferred school climate differs between and among the three African American private schools included in the study. 3. To determine if there is a correlation among teachers who teach at different levels in the three schools included in the study regarding their perceptions of their school climate. Research Questions The major research question can be stated as follows: â€Å"Is the actual school climate of independent African American private schools adequately meeting the perceptions of its teachers regarding their ideal school climate perceptions?† From this question several sub-questions have been formulated. These may now be listed as follows: 1. Do teacher perceptions of the actual school climate differ between and among the three African American private schools included in the study, as determined by scores on the actual environment answer form of the School Level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ)? 2. Do teacher perceptions of the ideal or preferred school climate differ between and among the three African American private schools included in the study, as determined by scores on the ideal or preferred environment answer form of the School Level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ)? 3. Is there a significant correlation among the perceptions of teachers employed in the three schools included in the study in terms of their view of their school climate, as determined from both answer forms of the School Level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ)? 4. Do the perceptions of teachers differ for those who teach at different student grade levels, as determined by a comparison of results from the School Level Environment Questionnaire for teachers instructing at different levels? Limitations and Delimitation One limitation of the study relates to the fact that the research has no control over the teacher participants’ reliability. It will be assumed, however, that the teachers will answer the survey questionnaire items honestly and to the best of their ability. There is also a certain weakness associated with only the use of a survey questionnaire to obtain data for analysis. Researchers do suggest the use of two or more sources–that is, triangulation – to produce better support data (Babbie, 2003; Creswell, 2003). With respect to delimitations of the study, the data source of this case will be limited to three independent Black private schools located in an urban city. Definitions Several common terms and designations are used uniquely in the proposed study. These are defined as follows: Independent Black private school. This term refers to a school owned by African Americans which is not dependent upon national or local government for financing its operation and is instead operated by tuition charges, gifts, and perhaps the investment yield of an endowment (Mahiri, 1998). School climate. This term refers to the school atmosphere. In restrictive and closed schools, authority emanates from the top down through hierarchical levels. Communication is restrictive and closed. In an open school climate, communication reaches all levels and moves in all directions (Moeller, 2005). School climate perceptions. Teacher views of their school environment will generally influence their motivation to teach, grow professionally, participate in decision making, and handle work pressures. In this study, the term will be operationally defined by scores on the School Level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ)? Self-concept. Self-concept is considered the most basic and crucial components of personality and can be influenced by environment. Self-concept can become positive in an open school climate; conversely it can become negative in a closed and restrictive school climate. The proposed study views self concept in this context (Branden, 1999). Staff development. For this research project, this term pertains to any activities that attempt to improve the teacher’s ability to implement a new instructional program. Staff development includes an emphasis on attitude, competencies, and knowledge that enhances learning (Sykes, 1996). Teachers’ perceptions. In general, perceptions in the present study pertain to teachers’ thoughts, beliefs, and feelings about professional development training, work pressures, participatory decision making, innovation, staff freedom, student support, professional interest, and affiliation, among other related variables. Their thoughts and beliefs affect their teaching approach and presentation. Teachers are active information processors who affect classroom events as much as they are affected by them (Chance & Costa, 1998). Importance of the Study African American students are not doing as well in school as others and this may be related to their teachers (Tatum, 2006). The findings of this investigative study may provide valuable knowledge about the teachers of these students. Also, other independent schools can use these outcomes to improve their educational programs for teachers and improve teacher productivity. In addition, the implications may insure that the professional and development needs of the teachers are met at school. The proposed study will add to the scholarly research. School reform and restructuring as it relates to professional development of teachers have gained momentum in the United States for the past 2 decades (Sparks, 1997). Meaningful educational reform cannot occur, however, unless teachers are integrally involved in the reform process and unless they have the time and resources to conceptualize the implementation of the changes need in their classrooms. But more research is needed to identify the ways in which the school climate can become more open and conducive to these needs. The significance of the proposed study lay in its ability to add to the database in this respect. The significance of the study and its potential results touches a number of areas and addresses several different audiences. As noted, the findings will add to the scholarly research. For example, understanding factors that influence teacher perceptions of climate in African American private schools can help reveal the underlying logic that influences their motivation, professional development, and perhaps their participation in the decision making processes. Chapter Two: Review of Literature It is important to note that educational researchers have consistently found unequal levels of achievement between African American and Caucasian students (Bankston & Caldas, 1997; Graybill, 1997). Educational specialists such as Hurd (2001) refer to the problem faced by African American students, as the achievement gap and further point out that in today’s school systems less than 60% of African American high school students graduate in 14 years. Joseph (2000) noted that if Caucasian students were dropping out at the same rates as African American students, we would declare a state of crisis in teaching these students. According to Tyson (2002), it is time to require teachers and administrators to address the problem and to consider issues related to achievement motivation among African American students. According to Baldwin, Coney III, and Thomas (1993), the eleven areas of school effectiveness are â€Å"effective instructional leadership, clear and focused mission, safe and orderly environment, positive school climate, high expectations, frequent assessment/monitoring of student achievement, emphasis on basic skills, maximum opportunities for learning, parent community involvement, strong professional development, and teacher involvement in decision-making.† In these areas of school effectiveness, school climate is one of the most important things wherein it has been subject to extensive research. School climate is a term referring to the â€Å"personality of a school,† according to Hoy and Miskel (1982). It is a characteristic of a school which includes the school’s physical structure of its buildings and the interactions between students and teachers. These are the two factors that both affect and help to define the concept of school climate according to Marshall (2004). Les Gallay and Suet-ling Pong (2004), on the other hand, viewed school climate as â€Å"the part of the school environment associated with attitudinal and affective dimensions and the belief systems of the school that influence children’s cognitive, social, and psychological development.† They also cited Ashby and Krug (1998) and Griffith (2000) on what school climate is a how it affect the society. According to Ashby and Krug (1998), school climate is reflected in the social interactions within the classroom and within the school community. According to Griffith (2000), values, attitudes, beliefs and communications are subjective matters; many researches rely on the perceptions of the participants (teachers, students, parents) to measure the effect of school climate. For many years and up to the recent days, the concept on school climate influencing significantly in educational outcomes is still being researched by many researchers. Perceptions on school climate influence many people (e.g. students, teachers, parents) which may also influence the processes and outcomes in a physical, social, and learning environment. Research shows that both teacher and student perceptions of school climate influence student achievement. An early study by Fraser (1989) laid the groundwork for this research. Fraser (1989) studied the effects of classroom environment on student achievement, for example, and found that student outcomes could be improved by creating classroom environments that are conducive to learning. Classroom environments studied by Fraser (1989) used student perceptual data to assess the school environment and reach conclusions. A number of studies have been conducted since the 1980s showing a relationship between students’ perceptions of the school climate in various terms and their achievement in one form or another. In 1995, the study of Bulach, Malone, & Castleman on the investigation of variables related to student achievement showed that there is a significant difference in student achievement between schools with good school climate and schools with poor school climate. On schools with positive school climate, students develop a positive perception on school climate, making them comfortable with the learning environment they are in. On separate studies conducted by Hirase (2000) and Erpelding (1999) on the relationship between school climate and achievement of students, both studies came up with same result that schools with a positive climate had a higher academic achievement as compared to schools with negative climate. Another case presented by Freiberg (1998) showed that the students’ perceptions are important especially during the transition from one school level to another (e.g. elementary to high school). According to him, attending a new school can be frightening for students which could affect their perceptions on the school climate which could consequently affect their learning outcomes or performance. With that, the research showed that having good or positive school climate will result to an easy transition or adaption to the new school environment and a good performance of students may be easily achieved. This chapter will focused more on the theories and studies related to the teachers’ perception on school climate in order to have critical views on it. In addition, this chapter will also present and analyze established studies on the influences made by school climate on teachers’ perceptions and subsequently to the effect of having these perceptions to the assessment and improvement of the students’ performance in school. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework of the study is related to attribution, motivational, and organizational climate in terms of lines of communication. According to attribution theory, teachers’ perceptions of their school teaching experiences will generally influence their achievement motivation and performance development more than the actual objective of those experiences (Weiner, 1985). School climate is also an important aspect of learning and effective instruction (Freiberg, 1998). When teachers are more empowered, students are able to voice their concerns and learn from the experience. When questions and answers are free flowing, the school climate is open. For example, understanding factors that are influenced by an independent Black school climate such as academic achievement can help reveal the underlying logic that influences teacher motivation and performance (Joseph, 2000). Motivation on the part of teachers is an important aspect of effective instruction (Joseph, 2000). Vroom (1964) defined motivation as a product of the anticipated worth that individuals place on a goal and the chances they see of achieving that goal, as mentioned in Chapter 1. According to him, three factors influence achievement: force, valence, and expectancy. Force is the strength of the teachers’ motivation while valence is the anticipated satisfaction from the result. Expectancy is the probability of achieving the outcome. The impact of force depends on both valence and expectancy. In his view, the three variables must exist for motivation to take place. Thus, when teachers do not think they will be successful at a task or do not value the results of becoming successful in their school or do not perceive a connection between their attitude and the school climate, it is more than likely that they will not apply themselves to the teaching activity. But when teachers are motivated to perform competently in the classroom, they will have more positive attitudes resulting to a positive result to the students. As noted by Banks (2001), school climate can also impact teacher identity. Banks reported that, â€Å"The school climate communicates†¦the school’s attitudes toward a range of issues and problems† (p. 24). School values not in agreement with those of its teachers and a lack of communication and perceptions of shared power and control on the part of administration (teachers and principals), may negatively influence teachers’ attitudes about the school itself and their chances for professional development (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993). When the climate of the school promotes a harmonious value system that is in agreement school wide, and when high levels of communication exist, teacher attitudes are more positive. Thus it can be seen, as Karpicke and Murphy (1996) have noted, a positive school climate has a great impact on success of both teachers and students alike, significantly encouraging achievement on the part of all. Lynn and Hassan (1999) examined pedagogical practices and beliefs of African American teachers and students at a private middle school in an affluent African American community. Their investigative study provided a portrait of the school and the students in an attempt to raise the critical consciousness of the students. From their observations and interviews, they found the role of alignment between the school mission and teacher beliefs and practices was high. Also, there were shared views about the principles taught regarding the development of moral, intellectual, and spiritual aspects of students. According to attribution theory, teachers’ perceptions of their school climate experiences, whether they be the actual objective of the experience or not, will generally influence their attitudes toward teaching (Weiner, 1985). In other words, teachers try to explain their failure or success by relating (attributing) this to certain school climate characteristics. Weiner (1986) also linked attribution theory to achievement motivation in specific steps. In Weiner’s view, the first step starts with an outcome realization. Deciding whether or not the outcome is negative or positive represents the second step of this sequential process. During the third step, specific information about the outcome is gathered. Next, the search for a cause takes place. This involves a determination as to whether the outcome is the effect of a specific strategy, conscious effort on the part of the student in question (i.e., the doer), or just plain luck. In this way, achievement motivation is explained. McClelland (1985) also linked attribution theory to achievement motivation, but carried the analysis as well as the theoretical orientation a step further. McClelland identified variables or component parts that comprised achievement motivation and subsequently acknowledged some common characteristics. These included (a) concern for personal achievement over concern for external rewards for success, (b) an ability to set obtainable goals, (c) the desire for performance related feedback as opposed to attitudinal feedback, and (d) consistent thinking about ways in which progress can be made which thus increases their achievement levels. Expectancy theory as related to achievement theory is yet another theoretical orientation of the present investigative research. It should be explained that the emotional feelings of achievement and satisfaction are actually determined by each individual. Teachers decide on the degree to which their learning experiences are satisfying by comparing them with their own expectations (Whaley & Smyer, 1998). Aspects of learning that fall short of these expectations can cause discontent. Often teachers compare their perceptions of their school climate to their perceptions of what it should be. If a teacher’s subjective evaluation or perception of ratio of school climate inputs to output (e.g., positive attitudes and satisfaction) is lower than the comparison, the teacher is very likely to be dissatisfied. Expectations and comparisons of perceived worth, however, are subjective, and often biased or even erroneous. Private Schools As the achievement gap grows larger, African American parents have also lost faith in public school education, especially those who have enrolled their children in private schools (Sander, 1997). This is because of some factors such as racial discrimination of the white teachers and white students to black students, low interest of students to go to school for a reason that they develop low self-esteem in school because of diverse ethnicity, and many other more. Black and White parents alike believe that attending private schools would rid their children of such problems as bullying, skipping school, high dropout rates, and would give their children a better chance to higher academic achievement. According to National Center for Education Statistics (2008), there are 28, 384 private schools in the United States now with 6.1 million PK-12 students enrolled. Over 25 percent of the nation’s schools are private schools and about 11% of all students are enrolled in these private schools. On the other hand, the National Center for Education Statistics, which periodically test the grade 4, 8, and 12 students’ skills and knowledge using the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), showed their analysis on the score of students from private and public schools. Based on their results, students in private schools consistently score well as compared to public students. There are many factors that could affect students’ achievement. Factors may include the type of school the student is enrolled, number of students in a classroom (class size), the efficiency of the teacher teaching the subject, the student’s classmates, and many other more including family and social factors that could hinders students’ achievement (Betts et. al, 2003). However, one of the most influential on students’ achievement is the way the teacher is teaching the subject and the values he/she taught to the students. With this reason, the teachers’ perception on their school climate will greatly influenced the way they will teach the students for their perceptions will determine factors that motivates them to teach such as job satisfaction or secured environment. Attribution Factors in Terms of School Climate A number of attribution factors influencing achievement motivation are identified in the literature and are examined in the research. These include (a) school climate in terms of lines of communication, (b) peer influence, and (c) perceptions of educational experiences. Each has an important influence and is considered to be an important attribution variable influencing achievement motivation. With respect to school climate, perceptions are related to their overall educational experience. Studies have shown that perceptions of school climate affect a wide variety of social and academic success factors, and vice versa. For example, the social environment and climate of the school and the actions within those environments influence students’ perceptions of their own effort and success in school (Kaufman, 2004). Moeller (2005) found that students’ perceptions of school climate and their own sense of responsible behavior are correlated. Studies also found that school climate can be effective in many ways. Researchers found school climate positively affect academic performance/achievement. They also found that it influences the behaviour of a student and the decision to remain in school (Monrad et al., 2008). Similarly, according to Kuperminc et al. (1997), a positive school climate showed association with fewer behavioural and emotional problems for students. Smerdon’s (2002) study, which collected data from a nationally representative sample of high school students, discovered that students who may need perceived school membership and open school climate the most and may benefit most from it perceived lower levels of membership than did their peers. The cultural environment in schools can also contribute to African American students’ poor academic performance. Teachers often comment on the fact that these items give them little chance to help African American students in meaningful ways: (a) they often can only maintain minimal order in the classroom, (b) school violence is on the increase, (c) with curriculum requirements teachers have little time to help student’s to fulfill the requirements of the curriculum, and (d) these students become discouraged and very often drop out of school (Hale-Benson, 1996). Voelkll (1995) examined the influence that participation and creating a warm school environment would have on academic achievement. The study included a nationwide sample of 13,121 eighth graders. The finding showed, â€Å"that there was a direct relationship between warmth in the classroom environment parent involvement in the school and students willingness to participate. It seems that participation in class has a distinct and crucial influence on the relationship between students’ perceptions and achievement† (p. 112). In addition, on the study conducted on school climate in urban environments by Haynes & Comer (1993) showed that a positive school climate and is conscious of cultural differences can significantly improve academic success or performance among the urban students. Hoy and Woolfolk (1993), on the other hand, assessed teachers’ perceptions of the school climate as related to organizational health. Specifically, the researchers examined the relationships between two dimensions of teacher efficacy (general and personal teaching efficacy) and aspects of a healthy school climate as defined in terms of institutional integrity, principal influence, consideration, resource support, morale, and academic emphasis. The sample of the study consisted of 179 teachers from 37 elementary schools in New Jersey (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993). A modification of the Organizational Health Inventory was administered to the teachers to obtain the data for analysis. The researchers concluded from their data analysis that a healthy school climate (strong academic emphasis and a principal who was able to influence superiors on behalf of teachers) was favorable to the development of teachers’ beliefs that they could influence student learning, â€Å"Thus, teachers’ confidence that they can reach students was supported by organizational factors that help teachers manage and teach students† (p. 355). Studies have shown that a positive school climate is associated with increased job satisfaction for teachers (Taylor and Tashakkori, 1995; Ma & MacMillan, 1999), level of work efficacy, and teacher autonomy. Teachers found satisfied in their jobs have more positive views or perception about school climate as compared to those teachers who were not satisfied (Bahamonde-Gunnell, 2000). While on the research conducted by Hirase (2000), the researcher found out that teachers working in a school with positive school climate have greater sense of work-efficacy. The research conducted by Erpelding (1999) found that there is a strong relationship between teacher autonomy and school climate. Same with the studies of Bempah et al. (1994) and Rosenholz (1989), when teachers feel that they have some power or autonomy and also involves into school-level decision-making, they are less likely to leave. Consequently, when teachers feel powerless and alienated, their efficiency to teach lowers (Ashton & Webb, 1986). With an increased in job satisfaction, work-efficacy, and teacher autonomy, teachers will be able to educate the students with quality education, thus, increasing the students’ performance or success in learning and making the school successful too. To support this favourable development of teachers in positive school climate which can lead to successful school, studies also found that a having a positive school climate is related to indicators of school success such as standardized test scores (Monrad et al., 2008). Chapter Three: Methodology Previous chapters introduced the problem of the study, explained the purpose, provided the theoretical orientation, and reviewed the literature pertinent to the major variables. The purpose of this chapter is to detail the methodology that will be employed to collect and analyze the data. Thus, this chapter presents the design, procedures, and analysis plan for carrying out the study. Research Design The method for this study is based on a non-experimental design that focuses on the use of data collected using scores from the SLEQ in a selected population. Thus, the research approach of the study will be descriptive and will essentially represent a quantitative study. Research provides us with a variety of perspectives from which to see things and a way of empirically analyzing our findings (Rinaldo, 2005). It enables use to see from where we have come, provides us with a description of where we are now, and gives us some semblance of the direction in which we seem headed (Rinaldo). Quantitative and qualitative research is vital part of any investigation. Quantitative research is defined as the collection of numerical and statistical data (O’Neil, 2006). Quantitative research is frequently used to investigate research questions. This research often starts with the collection of statistics, based on data, observations, or surveys. One popular quantitative technique is the survey. Surveys can be administered by telephone, face to face, mail, or more recently by the Internet. Quantitative data is described by O’Neil as data which can be sorted, classified, measured in a strictly objective way. The relationship between these variables is expressed using effect statistics, such as correlations, relative frequencies, or differences between means (Hopkins, 2000). The researcher is a very valuable component throughout the collection of data. According to Glesne and Peshkin (1992), when conducting a quantitative study, the researcher is described as being detached, impartial, objective, and portrayal. The researcher’s purpose is to generalize, predict, and provide causal explanations. There are several approaches the research can use. Some approaches are subject to hypothesis, theories, manipulation and control, experimentation, deductive, and component analysis (Glesne & Peshkin). According to Hopkins (2000), in a descriptive study, subjects are usually measured once and no attempt is made to change behavior or conditions; things are measured as they are. Hopkins stated that the aim in quantitative research is to distinguish the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable in a population. Selection of Participants Babbie (2003) indicated that it is appropriate for a researcher to conduct purposeful sampling because of the researcher’s knowledge of the population, its elements, and the nature of the research objectives. In addition, Babbie (2003) suggested that a researcher may want to study a small subset of a larger population in which members of the subset are easily identified. It is for this reason that three African American private schools in one urban area in the United States were selected for inclusion in the study. These will be named A, B, and C to ensure anonymity. Together, the study population total will be 67 teachers instructing preschool through twelfth grade. All will become the target population. Those who agree to participate in the study will become the sample. Their responses will provide data regarding their perception of the climate in their school, both actual and ideal. School A focuses on educating students ages 2-12 and strengthening basic educational components to prepare students to be competitive in a global society. The co-educational school enrolls 121 students in grades prekindergarten to fifth grade and employs 20 teachers. The student to teacher ratio is 9.3:1. All of the students are African American. School B is a Christian school. The co-educational school enrolls 220 students in grades prekindergarten to twelfth grade and employs 26 teachers. The student to teacher ratio is 7.8:1. Ninety-eight percent of the students are African American. School C has built its program around the concept currently known as African-Centered education, a holistic approach based upon the premise that children excel academically and intellectually when the curriculum, teaching methodology, and environment reflect the builders of yesterday and the ideas of the future. The co-educational school enrolls 215 students in grades prekindergarten to eighth grade and employs 21 teachers. The student to teacher ratio is 10:1. Ninety-eight percent of the students are African American. Instrumentation Data used in the proposed study to analyze the perceptions of teachers will be collected through administration of a test instrument, the School Level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ), as developed by Fisher and Fraser (1990) and published in the Handbook of Tests and Measurement in Education and the Social Sciences (2000). The SLEQ is comprised of 56 items that measure teacher’s perceptions of the psychological environment of a school. As explained by the originators, the SLEQ consists of two answer forms–one that measures the actual environment as perceived by teachers and the second that measures the ideal or preferred school environment. Three different teacher samples assisted in the development of the test instrument (Fraser, 1989). Alpha coefficients ranging from 0.70 to 0.81 were provided as an estimate of the internal consistency of each of the eight subscales. These subscales include student support, affiliation, professional interest, staff freedom, participatory decision making, innovation, research adequacy, and work pressure. Each subscale consists of seven items which, when added together, provide a separate score. The scale development for the SLEQ was derived from the Work Environment Scale (Fraser, 1989). It is divided into three basic dimensions. These include relationship, personal development, and system maintenance and system change dimensions. As reported by Fisher and Fraser (1990), these broad dimensions were used for the development of the SLEQ. Non-participatory decision making (suggesting a closed school climate) is indicated, for example, by such items as â€Å"I have little say in the running of the school† and â€Å"It is very difficult to change anything in this school.† Resource inadequacy is indicated by responses to such items as, â€Å"Tape recorders and cassettes are seldom available when needed† and â€Å"The supply of equipment and resources is inadequate.† Assumptions It will be assumed that all study subjects will answer the survey questions honestly and to the best of their ability. It is also assumed that the students in the three schools where their teachers are being surveyed will be representative of the larger population of African American students attending an independent Black private school. Procedures Data will be collected by the researcher from the teachers at each school at a time selected by the administrators and researcher. The purpose of the study will be presented to the teachers and the questionnaires will be distributed. The researcher will remain until the teachers have completed the questionnaires and will collect the completed forms before leaving the meeting. Those teachers who agree to participate and return completed survey forms will become the sample. All respondents will be asked not to sign their name. In this way this researcher can assure anonymity. Those who wish a copy of the results when the study is completed will be asked to provide an e-mail address to be used for this purpose only. Data Processing and Analysis Data collected from survey questionnaires will be assessed to determine whether teachers’ perceptions of their actual school climate are similar to their perceived ideal school climate. The perceptions will be compared. Teachers’ view of the ideal and actual psychological environment will also be compared across the three African American private schools included in the proposed study. Findings from the analysis of data will be reported as descriptive statistics. These include standard deviations, percentages, mean averages, and others of a similar nature. From this information, implications and conclusions will derive from the teacher perceptions. Findings from schools will be compared to each other and to those in the literature. References *Anderman, E. M., & Maehr, M. L. (1994). Motivation and schooling in the middle grades. Review of Educational Research, 64, 287-309. Ashby, Dianne E., and Samuel E. Krug. (1998). â€Å"Understanding and Promoting School Climate and Culture.† Thinking Through the Principalship. New York: Eye on Education Inc. Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York: Longman. Atkinson, J. W., & O’Conner, P. (1996). Neglected factors of achievement oriented performances: Social approval as an incentive and performance decrement. New York: Wiley. Babbie, E. (2003). The practice of social research (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thompson. Bahamonde-Gunnell, M. A. (2000). Teachers perceptions of school culture in relation to job satisfaction and commitment. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(09), p.3419. (Publication Number AAT 9988423) Baldwin, Lee, Freeman Coney III, and Roberta Thomas. (1993) School Effectiveness Questionnaire (SEQ). Harcourt Brace Educational Measurement, Order Service Center, PO Box 839954, San Antonio. Bandura, A. (1991). Social foundations of thought and action. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Banks, J. A. (2001). Multicultural education: Characteristics and goals. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (4th ed., pp. 3-30). New York: John Wiley. *Bankston, C., III, & Caldras, S. J. (1997). The American school dilemma: Race and scholastic performance. Sociological Quarterly, 38, 423-429. Beachum, F. D., & McCray, C. R. (2004, September 14). Cultural collision in urban schools. Current Issues in Education, 7. Retrieved 4 April 2008, from http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume7/number5/ Bempah, E. O., Kaylen, M.S., Osburn, D. D., & Bikenholz, R. J. (1994). An econometric analysis of teacher mobility. Economics of Education Review, 13 (1), 69-77. Bennett, C. I. (1999). Comprehensive multicultural education, theory, and practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Betts, Julian R., Zau A. C., and Rice L. A. (2003). Determinants of Student Achievement: New Evidence from. ISBN 1-58213-044-2. Branden, N. (1999). The psychology of high self-esteem (3rd ed.). Chicago: Nightingale-Conant. Bronkhurst, H. (2001). Achievement motivation. New York: Wiley. Bulach, C. R., Malone, B., & Castleman, C. (1995). An investigation of variables related to student achievement. 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(Publication Number AAT 9930316) Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59, 117-142. Finn, J. D. (1992). School engagement and student at risk. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics Research and Development Reports. Fisher, D. L., & Fraser, B. J. (2000). Validity and use of the School-Level Environment Questionnaire. In P. E. Lester & Bishop, L. K. (Eds.), Handbook of tests and measurement in education and the social sciences (pp. 67-69). University Center for Research and Development in Teacher Education. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. Fleming J. (1995). Special needs of Blacks and other minorities. In A. W. Chickering & Associates (Eds.), The modern American college: Responding to the new realities of diverse students and a changing society (pp. 279-295). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. *Ford, D. Y., & Harris, J. J. (1996). Perceptions and attitudes of Black students toward school, achievement, and other educational variables. Child Development, 67, 1141-1152. *Foster, R. (1997). Epistemologic and practical issues in multimethod research: A procedure for conceptual triangulation. Advances in Nursing Science, 20(2) 1-12. *Fraser, B. J. (1989). Twenty years of classroom climate work: Progress and prospect. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21, 307-327. *Fraser, B. J. (1998). Classroom environment instruments: Development, validity and applications. Learning Environments Research, 1, 7-34. Freiberg, H. J. (1998). Measuring school climate: Let me count the ways. Educational Leadership, 56(1), 22-26. *Frieze, I. H. (1976). Causal attributions and information seeking to explain success and failure. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, 293-305. Gallay, Les and Suet-ling Pong. (2004). â€Å"School Climate and Students’ Intervention Strategies.† Society for Prevention Research Annual Meeting, Quebec City, May 2004. Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. 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The men who shaped the United States were victims of tyranny, and thus deliberately structured our central government with self-imposed checks and balances. These checks aimed to ensure the safety and interests of the people while also holding the members of the government accountable to each other and the nation. The framers of the constitution were successful in many ways, however there are conditions today that impede maximum political accountability. Members of Congress are held accountable to a variety of political forces ranging from the district and federal level. Overall, members of Congress’ predominant goal are to be reelected. To accomplish this feat, the support of the constituents is the driving influence. When analyzing†¦show more content†¦Congressmen can change their entire stance on an issue, even though know one is paying attention, just because of the fact there is a chance at some point it could help them win reelection. Colleagues and the presiden t also of course influence congressional decision-making, but the original intent and practice is for the people, constituents, to have the most direct (and indirect) accountability for Congress by controlling the voting. While this sounds good in theory, there is an underlying basis for why congressional accountability is unsuccessful. Running a campaign is no small task and takes a lot of capital. To make a credible challenge to an incumbent in the house, it is estimated 1-2 million dollars is needed (Bianco and Canon 2015, 405) and the average U.S. senate race cost in 2014 was 2.7 million dollars (Miller, 10/1/2015). Congressmen always have to be in campaign mode and because it is so monetarily dependent, the need for members to seek out or accept financial help from sources such as parties and PACs becomes a prevailing factor of congressional decision making (Bianco and Canon 2015, 405 and Miller, 10/27/2015). This element, money, creates a new audience for Congressmen to be att entive to contradictory to the original intent and thus clouding the accountability of Congress. The President’s primary responsibilities are to the constitution and the electorate. The

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